The Icelandic language is a member of the North Germanic family, spoken by approximately 314,000 people, primarily those residing within Iceland and the Nordic Council, but there are speakers within Denmark, the United States and Canada. It is the official language of Iceland and the Nordic Council. Knowledge of Icelandic speech and language development will help us to better understand not only Old Norse-born languages, but help us to better evaluate Icelandic speakers.
Icelandic descends directly from Old Norse, the language spoken by the Norse people during the Viking Age (roughly 8th to 14th centuries). When Norse settlers arrived in Iceland around the late 9th century, they brought with them this early form of the language. Because of Iceland’s geographic isolation, the language has undergone very few changes compared to other Germanic languages.
Being a North Germanic language, Icelandic tends to have many of the harsher characteristics in fluency and intonation as the current German language. From a phonological standpoint, Icelandic maintains a rich and complex sound system. Its consonant clusters and vowel shifts can present challenges not only for second-language learners but also for native speakers with speech sound disorders.
In this post, we will share information about the Icelandic language to support evaluations working with Icelandic-speaking clients. We’ll highlight key linguistic features of Icelandic that may impact speech and language development, assessment, and intervention.
Interesting Facts About Icelandic Speech and Language Development
Due to Iceland’s geographic isolation, the traditional Icelandic language has continued to survive over 1,000 years, making it one of the world’s oldest languages.
Each year on November 16th, Iceland celebrates Icelandic Language Day (Dagur íslenskrar tungu), marking the birthday of 19th-century poet Jónas Hallgrímsson, a key figure in Icelandic literary and linguistic history.
Rather than using family surnames, Icelanders typically take their last name from their father’s (or sometimes mother’s) first name, followed by “son” or “dóttir.”
Iceland has one of the highest literacy ratings in the world. Literacy in Iceland is nearly 100%, and the country boasts a strong literary culture. Per capita, more books are written, published, and read in Iceland than almost anywhere else.
There are over 50 words within the Icelandic language for snow.
Naming in Iceland is strict and must abide by certain rules. Names must conform to Icelandic grammar and tradition. Parents must choose names from an official registry, and new names must be approved by the Icelandic Naming Committee.
Icelandic Speech and Language Development
Icelandic Consonants in Comparison to English
| Icelandic Consonants Not Shared with English | /c/ /cʰ/ /ɟ/ /ç/ /x/ /ɣ/ /ɲ/ /r/ /pʰ/ /tʰ/ /kʰ/ /θ̊/ /l̥/ |
| Consonants Shared With English | /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ /f/ /s/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /l/ /j/ |
| English Consonants Not Shared with Icelandic | /v/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /h/ /ð/ /θ/ /ɹ/ /w/ |
Icelandic Vowels in Comparison to English
| Icelandic Vowels Not Shared with English | /ɪː/ /ʏː/ /ʊː/ /ɛː/ /œː/ /ai/ /au/ /ou/ /ei/ /œy/ |
| Vowels Shared With English | /i/ /a/ /ɛ/ /ɔ/ /u/ /o/ /ə/ |
| English Vowels Not Shared with Icelandic | /ɚ/ /ʌ/ /ʊ/ /e/ /I/ /æ/ |
The Use of Phonotactic Constraints in Icelandic Speakers
Phonotactic constraints are rules about the allowed combinations of sounds in a language. Icelandic has several unique phonotactic features that may influence the speech patterns of native speakers learning English:
- Complex Initial Clusters Are Limited
Icelandic allows some consonant clusters at the beginning of words (e.g., /kn/ in knúz), but these differ from English clusters. For example, clusters like /stɹ/ in English (street) do not occur in native Icelandic and may be simplified or altered. - Word-Final Voiced Stops Are Not Native
Native Icelandic words typically do not end in voiced stops like /b/, /d/, or /g/. These may be devoiced in final position, so an English word like cab might be produced as [kap]. - Aspiration Is Phonemic
Icelandic distinguishes between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops (e.g., /pʰ/ vs /p/), whereas English does not phonemically contrast them. This may result in unusual stress or timing patterns when Icelandic speakers produce English stops. - No /z/ or /ʒ/ in Native Inventory
Icelandic does not use /z/ or /ʒ/ in native words. These may be replaced with /s/ or /ʃ/ in English, e.g., zoo → [suː]. - /v/ Is Often a Labiodental Approximant
In Icelandic, /v/ is commonly produced as a labiodental approximant [ʋ], which can affect intelligibility in English when producing /v/ and /w/ contrasts. - No /θ/ or /ð/ in Initial Position in Native Words
While Icelandic includes /θ/ and /ð/, they are restricted in distribution and occur mainly between vowels or medially. English words beginning with these sounds (e.g., that, think) may be produced with substitutions like /t/ or /d/. - Syllable Structure Tends to Be CV or CVC
Icelandic favors simple syllables. Complex codas or clusters at the end of words (e.g., text) may be reduced or simplified. - Trills and Taps Are Common for /r/
Icelandic uses a trilled or tapped /r/, which differs from the English retroflex /ɹ/. This may result in an accented production of English /r/.
Icelandic Speech Developmental Norms
| Age of Acquisition | Sounds |
|---|---|
| ~2;6 years | /m, n, p, t, j, h, f, l/ (in word-initial and within-word position) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |
| 2;6–2;11 years | General consonant inventory accuracy ≈ 73 % pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |
| 7;0–7;11 years | Consonant accuracy ≈ 98.6 % pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |
| By ~7 years | Acquisition of late-emerging sounds: /x, r, r̥, s, θ, n̥/ and complex clusters (e.g., /sv‑/, /stl‑/, /str‑/, /skr‑/, /θr‑/, /‑ðr‑/, /‑tl‑/, /‑kl̥/, /‑xt/) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |
Notes related to Icelandic developmental norms:
- Norms are based on a broad cross-sectional study of 437 Icelandic-speaking children aged 2;6–7;11 (years;months), using the Málhljóðapróf ÞM (ÞM’s Test of Speech Sound Disorders) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
- Consonant inventory accuracy increases markedly from ~73 % at age 2;6–2;11 to ~98.6 % by age 7.
- The earliest-acquired consonants include: /m, n, p, t, j, h, f, l/
- The latest-acquired phonemes (>7 years) and clusters involve complex places and voicing.
Language Specific Differences Between English and Icelandic
Icelandic and English share a Subject-Verb-Object word order in basic sentences, but Icelandic also allows more flexibility due to its case marking. Icelandic places adjectives before nouns (like English), but changes adjective endings to agree with gender and case. Unlike English, Icelandic has three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and a rich system of noun declensions, including definite suffixes (e.g., húsið for “the house”). Verb conjugation in Icelandic reflects person and number, whereas English relies more on word order and auxiliary verbs. English uses a simple article system (a/an, the), while Icelandic mainly expresses definiteness via suffixes and uses fewer separate definite articles.
| Language Features | Icelandic | English |
|---|---|---|
| Sentence Word Order | SVO, but flexible thanks to case marking | Primarily SVO |
| Adjectives/Noun Modifiers | Adjectives precede nouns and agree in gender, case, and number | Adjectives precede nouns without agreement |
| Possessives | Expressed via genitive case on noun (e.g., Maríu bók) | Uses ‘s (e.g., “Mary’s book”) |
| Possessive Pronouns | Agree in gender/case/number (e.g., hans, hennar, þitt) | My, your, his, her, etc., no gender/case agreement |
| Verb Inflection | Conjugated for person, number, tense, mood | Conjugated weakly (mostly -s, -ed), with auxiliaries |
| Pronouns | Includes gendered third-person pronouns (hann, hún, það) | He, she, it |
| Pronoun Gender | Explicit grammatical gender | He/she but pronouns not gendered beyond that |
| Subjects of Sentences | Can be dropped in imperative; otherwise used like English with agreement | Almost always required (except imperatives) |
| Regular Past Tense | Past tense conjugated with suffixes | Adds -ed (e.g., walk → walked) |
| Irregular Past Tense | Irregular verbs change roots or vowels | Irregular forms like go → went |
| Negatives | Negation via ekki after verb or particle | Uses auxiliary do/does not |
| Double Negatives | Standard in speech (e.g., “Ég sá ekki neinn”) | Generally ungrammatical |
| Question Formation | Inversion of verb and subject, or question particles (e.g., Hefur hann… ?) | Yes/no questions use inversion (Do you…?), WH-questions move question word to front |
| Definite Articles | No separate article; suffixes are used (e.g., -inn, -in) | The |
| Indefinite Articles | Separate by gender: einn, ein, eitt | A, an |
| Prepositions | Uses prepositions, sometimes with case | Prepositions not governed by case; fixed usage |
| Present Progressive Form | Expressed with simple present (e.g., ég les = “I read/am reading”) | Uses be + -ing form |
| Modal Verbs | Exist but less extensive (e.g., má, skal) | Use can, will, must, may, should, etc. |
| Copula/”To Be” Verbs | vera conjugated for person/number | Be is irregular: am/is/are |
| Auxiliary Verbs | Used mainly for passive/perfect constructions | Do, have, will serve as auxiliaries |
| Passive Voice | Built with auxiliary vera + past participle | Built with be + past participle |
| Direct Object Pronouns | Clitic pronouns, agreeing in case (e.g., hann, hana) | Me, you, him, her, it |
| Conjunctions | Coordinating/subordinating conjunctions used (e.g., og, eða, þegar) | And, or, but, when, because |
| Plurals | Nouns have distinct plural endings by declension class | Regular -s or irregular forms (e.g., mouse → mice) |
Sources:
Árnason, Kristján. The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese. Oxford University Press, 2011.
“English Phonology.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology. Accessed 6 June 2025.
FamilySearch Wiki. (2022, December 14). Iceland languages.
Flego, S., & Berkson, K. H. (2020). A phonetic illustration of the sound system of Icelandic – Researchgate. Researchgate.
Gísladóttir, Hrafnhildur. “A Descriptive Grammar of Icelandic.” Journal of Germanic Linguistics, vol. 28, no. 1, 2016, pp. 1–42.
Gussenhoven, Carlos, and Haike Jacobs. Understanding Phonology. Routledge, 2017.
Holy genitive case in Icelandic Batman!. Icelandic Language Blog | Language and Culture of the Icelandic-Speaking World. (2013, September 15).
Icelandic adverbs. Learn. (n.d.-a).
Icelandic grammar. Icelandic Grammar. (n.d.).
Icelandic grammar. Langhok. (2023, April 25).
“Icelandic Grammar.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, accessed June 6, 2025.
Icelandic made easi(er). Icelandic Made Easi(er). (n.d.).
“Icelandic Phonology.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_phonology. Accessed 6 June 2025.
Icelandic pronouns. Learn. (n.d.-b).
Institute, T. linguist. (n.d.). Icelandic grammar guide. The LingQ Icelandic Grammar Guide.
Introduction to adjectives. Icelandic Grammar Reference. (n.d.).
Magdeliya, A. (2019, July 20). Word order and questions. I love Icelandic.
Phonological development and disorders in Icelandic-speaking children. (n.d.).
“Phonotactics.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics. Accessed 6 June 2025.
Platzack, C. (1987). The Scandinavian languages and the null-subject parameter. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 5(3), 377–401.
Thorhallsson, Þórhallur. Icelandic: Grammar and Usage. Routledge, 2016.
Wagner, Dr. J. (n.d.-a). Icelandic nouns. ielanguages.com.
Wagner, Dr. J. (n.d.-b). Icelandic pronouns. ielanguages.com.
Welch – Draft 4 – University of British Columbia. (n.d.-b).
Wikimedia Foundation. (2023a, August 4). Icelandic grammar. Wikipedia.
Wikimedia Foundation. (2023b, October 11). Icelandic orthography. Wikipedia.
Wikimedia Foundation. (2023c, October 15). Icelandic language. Wikipedia.
Contributors:
A special thanks to Cassidy Kramp with Concordia University- Wisconsin for data compilation and research that went into this article!
