Appalachian English is a distinct and deeply rooted dialect of American English spoken throughout the Appalachian Mountain region, spanning from southern New York to northern Alabama and Georgia, with its core centered in eastern Kentucky, West Virginia, western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Characterized by unique phonological, grammatical, and lexical features, this dialect reflects a rich linguistic heritage shaped by early settlers of Scots-Irish, German, and British descent.
Understanding Appalachian English speech and language development is crucial for educators and speech-language pathologists. The dialect’s systematic and rule-governed differences from Standard American English (SAE) can easily be mistaken for signs of a language disorder. Misdiagnosing dialectal variations as delays can lead to inappropriate interventions, mislabeling, and educational inequities for students who speak this dialect. Just as we distinguish second-language influence from speech-language impairment, it is critical to differentiate between dialectal differences and actual communication disorders in English-speaking children.
This article outlines key grammatical and phonological features of Appalachian English, compares them directly to SAE, and provides concrete examples to support accurate assessment and intervention. It also includes resources and audio examples that help professionals understand and apply this knowledge in both therapy and classroom contexts.
Overview of the Appalachian English Dialect
- Geographic Distribution: Spoken throughout the Appalachian Mountains, including areas of Kentucky, Tennessee, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, and parts of Ohio and Georgia.
- Historical Roots: Appalachian English dialect is influenced by early English, Scots-Irish, and German-speaking settlers. Some features trace back to 17th and 18th-century British English.
- Social Perception: Often stigmatized in mainstream media and education, but it is a legitimate dialect that follows systematic linguistic rules and serves as a marker of cultural identity.
- Educational Impact: Educators need to be aware of Appalachian English grammar and pronunciation to avoid misinterpreting dialectal speech as disordered.
Appalachian English Grammar and Phonology Compared to Standard American English
Understanding Appalachian English grammar differences helps clinicians and educators distinguish between dialectal difference and disorder.
Phonological Differences in Appalachian English Speech
| Feature | Appalachian English Example | SAE Equivalent | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Consonant Cluster Reduction | “des’” | desk | Final consonants dropped in clusters |
| Post-vocalic /r/ reduction | “fo’” | for | Similar to some Southern and New York dialects |
| Epenthetic /r/ | “warsh” | wash | Insertion of /r/ after a vowel |
| Monophthongization | “tahm” for time | time | /aɪ/ becomes [aː] |
| Intrusion of /t/ | “oncet” | once | Older form retained |
| Syllable Reduction | “ever’body” | everybody | Common in casual SAE too, but more consistent in this dialect |
Grammatical Differences: Appalachian English vs Standard American English
| Feature | Appalachian English Example | SAE Equivalent | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Leveled past tense “was” | “They was going” | “They were going” | Subject-verb agreement variation |
| Double Modals | “Might could go” | “Might go” or “Could go” | Common and systematic in this dialect |
| A-prefixing | “He’s a-runnin’” | “He’s running” | Prefix used with -ing verbs, especially in storytelling |
| Perfective “done” | “She done told you” | “She already told you” | Emphasizes completion of an action |
| “Liketa” as near-event marker | “I liketa died” | “I almost died” | Idiomatic and expressive |
| “For to” Infinitive | “I went to town for to buy feed” | “I went to town to buy feed” | Archaic structure preserved in dialect |
Unique Vocabulary in Appalachian English Speech vs Standard American English
| Appalachian Term | Standard English Equivalent |
|---|---|
| poke | paper bag |
| britches | pants |
| afeared | afraid |
| buggy | shopping cart |
| tote | to carry |
| coke | any carbonated soft drink |
| holler | small valley |
| fixin’ to | about to |
| yonder | over there |
Appalachian English in Education and Literacy Development
Children who speak Appalachian English may exhibit written and spoken forms that reflect their home dialect. These features should not be treated as deficits but rather as dialectal variations. Examples include:
- Nonstandard verb forms: “He done went to the store”
- Dialectal spelling: “winder” instead of “window”
- Alternative syntax or modal constructions: “We might should leave now”
Educators and SLPs can use contrastive analysis to teach students when and how to shift between Appalachian English and SAE in academic settings, while affirming their home language identity. Recognizing Appalachian English differences can help avoid unnecessary referrals and support culturally responsive teaching and intervention.
Audio Examples of Appalachian English Speech
To hear authentic examples of Appalachian speech, explore the following resources:
Mountain Talk and the ways of the Southern Appalachian people
A cultural documentary featuring rich dialect examples.
Appalachian English (Sociolinguistics Part 7)
A linguist explains key features of Appalachian English speech and grammar.
Additional Resources on Appalachian English Speech and Language Development
- University of South Carolina Appalachian English Project
- Talking Appalachian: Voice, Identity, and Community – Clark & Hayward, eds.
- Appalachian Speech – Wolfram & Christian (1976)
- ASHA: “Appalachian English and Standardized Language Testing”
Sources
- “Appalachian English and Standardized Language Testing.” American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, ASHA.
- “Appalachian English (Sociolinguistics Part 7).” YouTube, uploaded by Brett Bowles, 2021.
- Clark, Amy D., and Nancy M. Hayward, editors. Talking Appalachian: Voice, Identity, and Community. University Press of Kentucky, 2013.
- “Grammar and Syntax of Smoky Mountain English (SME).” Appalachian English Project, University of South Carolina, artsandsciences.sc.edu/appalachianenglish/node/796.
- Hall, Joseph Sargent. “The Phonetics of Great Smoky Mountain Speech.” American Speech, vol. 17, no. 2, 1942, pp. 1–12.
- Montgomery, Michael. “The Historical Background and Nature of the Englishes of Appalachia.” Talking Appalachian: Voice, Identity, and Community, edited by Clark and Hayward, University Press of Kentucky, 2013, pp. 25–53.
- “Mountain Talk – People of Southern Appalachia.” YouTube, uploaded by Appalshop, 2008.
- Wolfram, Walt, and Donna Christian. Appalachian Speech. Center for Applied Linguistics, 1976.
English Dialects Compared to Standard American English
This is one of several essays that we put together on the many varieties of our shared language. Check these out:
