Hawaiian speech and language development reflects the rich history and cultural significance of the Hawaiian language, a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family. Also known as ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, it is spoken by approximately 2,000 Native Speakers today. After the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1896, Hawaiian was banned in schools, leading to a decline in use. However, revitalization efforts began in 1978 when Hawaiian was re-established as an official language of the state of Hawai‘i. Since then, it has become a written language and is used in government offices, courts, and schools. In 1990, the United States federal government recognized Hawai‘i’s right to preserve, use, and support its indigenous language. Understanding how to properly evaluate and differentiate Hawaiian speech and language development in children is essential for clinicians to accurately diagnose and provide effective treatment to Hawaiian-speaking clients.
Hawaiian is an official language of Hawai‘i alongside English and is spoken across all inhabited islands, exhibiting only minor dialectal variation. In contrast, Hawaiian Creole English (commonly called Pidgin) is more widely spoken throughout Hawai‘i today. This creole language emerged around the turn of the 20th century due to two overlapping influences: Native Hawaiian speakers being encouraged to use English and the impact of Pidgin Hawaiian spoken by immigrant communities. Awareness of these language dynamics is important for speech-language pathologists working in Hawai‘i to distinguish between dialectal differences, creole influences, and true speech-language disorders.
This essay introduces the foundational elements of the Hawaiian language and it’s unique linguistic features. By gaining a deeper understanding of ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, educators and clinicians can more effectively support Hawaiian-speaking children in ways that honor their language, identity, and cultural heritage.
Interesting Facts About Hawaiian Speech and Language Development
- Hawaiian vowels are always pronounced the same way, which makes it easier for children to develop consistent and confident pronunciation skills early on.
- Niʻihau locals speak Hawaiian as their first language. Niʻihau is a private island and is the only place where people primarily speak Hawaiian. About 200 people live here today, and it is closed to tourists.
- Hawaiian was recognized as an official language in 1978. The Hawaiian language is currently being revitalized, but native Hawaiians historically spoke Hawaiian as their first language.
- Founded in 1810 under King Kamehameha I, the Hawaiian Kingdom was internationally recognized by the United States, Britain, France, and other nations. It had written constitutions, a national flag, land tenure systems, and an elected legislature.
- Hawaiian has only 13 letters: 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u) and 8 consonants (h, k, l, m, n, p, w, ʻokina). The ʻokina (ʻ) is a glottal stop and is essential for correct pronunciation.
- Because Hawaiian has no consonant clusters, children are less likely to experience common speech errors found in English, like dropping sounds in blends (e.g., “sp” or “tr”).
- It is important to note that Hawaiian Pidgin, a creole language, is more commonly spoken in Hawaii than Hawaiian.
Hawaiian Speech and Language Development
Hawaiian Consonants in Comparison to English
| Hawaiian Consonants Not Shared with English | Okina (glottal stop /ʔ/)¹ |
| Consonants Shared With English | /p/ /k/ /h/ /m/ /n/ /w/² |
| English Consonants Not Shared with Hawaiian | /b/ /t/ /d/ /g/ /f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /j/ /l/ /ð/ /θ/ /ɹ/ |
Hawaiian Vowels in Comparison to English
| Hawaiian Vowels Not Shared with English | None |
| Vowels Shared With English | a/ /i/ /u/³ |
| English Vowels Not Shared with Hawaiian | /ɪ/ɚ/ /ɔ/ /o/ /ɛ/ /ʌ/ /ʊ/ /e/ /ɪ/ /æ/ /ə/ |
Notes:
- The ʻOkina (glottal stop /ʔ/) is a consonant phoneme unique to Hawaiian, absent from English phonology.
- Hawaiian /w/ is somewhat variable, sometimes realized closer to English /v/ or /ʋ/, but generally treated as /w/.
- Hawaiian has only five vowel qualities (/a i u e o/), but the phoneme /e/ and /o/ correspond closely with English /e/ and /o/ (although English has more vowel distinctions). For this table, we focused on the core /a i u/ shared vowel qualities since Hawaiian lacks the full range of English vowels.
Phonotactic Constraints in Hawaiian Speakers
Hawaiian phonotactics govern the allowable combinations of sounds in syllables and words. These constraints shape how Hawaiian speakers produce words and influence their transfer patterns when speaking English or other languages. Understanding these constraints can help clinicians differentiate between dialectal differences or second-language influences and true speech sound disorders.
Key Phonotactic Constraints for Hawaiian Speakers
- Syllable Structure:
Hawaiian syllables are typically open, meaning they end in a vowel (CV or V). Closed syllables (ending in a consonant) are not permitted in Hawaiian.
Example: Hawaiian words like aloha (a-lo-ha) follow open syllable patterns, while English words ending in consonants (e.g., cat, dog) may be challenging initially. - Consonant Clusters:
Hawaiian does not allow consonant clusters (two or more consonants together within a syllable). This contrasts with English, where clusters like /str/ or /bl/ are common.
Implication: Hawaiian speakers might insert vowels (epenthesis) or simplify clusters when speaking English.
Example: “street” might become /sə.trit/ or /stə.rit/. - Consonant Inventory:
Hawaiian has a limited consonant inventory—only eight consonants plus the glottal stop (/ʔ/). This often results in substitutions for consonants absent in Hawaiian when speaking English.
Example: English /s/ and /z/ sounds may be substituted or omitted since Hawaiian lacks these phonemes. - Glottal Stop Usage:
The glottal stop (/ʔ/), represented by the ʻokina, is a distinct consonant in Hawaiian and appears between vowels or word-initially. It can influence syllable boundaries and word meanings.
Example: The presence or absence of a glottal stop can distinguish moa (chicken) from moʻa (cooked). - Vowel Length:
Vowel length (short vs. long) is phonemic in Hawaiian, meaning it changes word meaning. Long vowels are often marked with a macron (kahakō).
Example: kāne (man) vs. kane (male name).
This feature influences stress and rhythm in speech. - Stress Patterns:
Stress in Hawaiian typically falls on the penultimate syllable (second-to-last syllable). This predictable stress pattern differs from the variable stress patterns in English and may affect English stress production by Hawaiian speakers.
Implications for Speech-Language Pathologists
When assessing Hawaiian speakers, clinicians should be aware that:
- Omission or substitution of consonants may be dialectal rather than disordered.
- Epenthesis (inserting vowels to break consonant clusters) is expected when speakers produce English words with clusters.
- The use of glottal stops and vowel length is linguistically meaningful and should be respected in therapy.
- Stress placement may differ from SAE norms, influencing intelligibility but not necessarily indicating a disorder.
Language Specific Differences Between English and Hawaiian
Hawaiian and English differ significantly in many grammatical areas, which is important for speech-language pathologists to understand when working with Hawaiian-speaking clients. Hawaiian generally follows a verb-subject-object (VSO) word order, unlike English’s subject-verb-object (SVO). Hawaiian does not use articles like “a” or “the,” and does not mark plural nouns with an ending like English does. Instead, context or separate words indicate number. Additionally, Hawaiian verbs do not inflect for tense like English verbs; instead, particles or context indicate time. Gender distinctions in pronouns are also minimal in Hawaiian compared to English. These differences influence how Hawaiian speakers may produce English sentences and can help clinicians distinguish language differences from language disorders.
| Language Features | Hawaiian | English |
|---|---|---|
| Sentence Word Order | Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) | Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) |
| Adjectives/Noun Modifiers | Adjectives follow nouns | Adjectives precede nouns |
| Possessives | Possessor follows possessed noun, no possessive ‘s | Possessor precedes noun + ‘s |
| Possessive Pronouns | Expressed by separate words or context | my, your, his, her, etc. |
| Verb inflection | No tense inflection; particles or context indicate tense | Verb changes form for tense |
| Pronouns | Minimal distinction, gender-neutral | Gender-specific pronouns (he, she) |
| Pronoun Gender | No gender distinctions | Yes |
| Subjects of Sentences | Subject often omitted if understood | Subject usually expressed |
| Regular Past Tense | No regular past tense inflection | Verb + -ed |
| Irregular Past Tense | No irregular past tense | Irregular forms (went, saw) |
| Negatives | Negation expressed with particles | Negation with “not” or auxiliary verbs |
| Double Negatives | Generally not used | Used in some dialects, discouraged in Standard English |
| Question formation | Uses particles and intonation | Auxiliary inversion (Do you…?) |
| Definite Articles | None | “the” |
| Indefinite Articles | None | “a,” “an” |
| Prepositions | Prepositions exist but differ in use | Prepositions like in, on, at |
| Present Progressive Verb Form | Expressed with context or separate words | Verb + -ing |
| Modal Verbs | Rare or absent | can, will, must, etc. |
| Copula/”To Be” Verbs | Often omitted or implied | Am, is, are |
| Auxiliary Verbs | Rare, often particles instead | have, do, be auxiliaries |
| Passive Voice | Rarely used | Formed with “be” + past participle |
| Direct Object Pronouns | Not distinct from other pronouns | me, him, her, etc. |
| Conjunctions | Simple conjunctions | and, but, or |
| Plurals | No plural suffix; context or separate words indicate number | -s or -es suffix |
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Contributors:
A special thanks to Madison Stumpf with Concordia University- Wisconsin for data compilation and research that went into this article!
