Maltese is a member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, the only semitic language written in the Latin alphabet. Its history dates back to the Phoenician settlers who arrived on the Maltese islands around the 8th century BCE. The language derives from the Arabic dialect Siculo-Arabic spoken in Sicily, and is closely related to the western Arabic dialects of Algeria and Tunisia. Over time, it was heavily influenced by different languages, deriving its vocabulary from Italian, Arabic, English, and French. Maltese speech and language development has been shaped by centuries of conquest and cultural exchange, resulting in a mosaic that reflects Malta’s complex history.
There are around 530,000 Maltese speakers: 450,000 in Malta and 79,000 in the diaspora across Australia, Italy, Canada, the United Kingdom, and other countries. Malta’s official languages are Maltese and English, and Maltese only got official status in 1934. The largest diaspora community of Maltese speakers is in Australia, with 36,000 speakers reported in 2006. In the United States, there is a notable Maltese-American community, though specific speaker numbers are not readily available in recent sources. While many Maltese Americans may retain cultural connections to Malta, the extent of active Maltese language use in the US diaspora varies among families and generations.
Continue reading to learn about aspects of Maltese so you can accurately assess its speakers.
Interesting Facts About Maltese Speech and Language Development
- Maltese became an official language of the European Union in 2004. It is still the only official Semitic language of the Union.
- The Maltese language is frequently code-switched with English. There are also many English loan words incorporated into Maltese.
- Various places have accents and dialects that differ from standard Maltese, but there has been a decline in the number of dialectal speakers.
- The preservation of Maltese is seen as a vital part of its cultural sovereignty despite Malta’s small size.
Maltese Speech and Language Development
Maltese Consonants in Comparison to English
| Maltese Consonants Not Shared with English | /ʔ/ (glottal stop), /ħ/ (pharyngeal fricative) |
| Consonants Shared With English | /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ /f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /j/ /l/ /r/ /w/ |
| English Consonants Not Shared with Maltese | /θ/ /ð/ /ɹ/ (English alveolar approximant rhotic) |
Maltese Vowels in Comparison to English
| Maltese Vowels Not Shared with English | /ɐ/ (central open‑mid), /ɪ/ (near‑close front), /ɛ/ (open‑mid), /ɔ/ (open‑mid back), long counterparts /ɐː, ɛː, iː, ɪː, ɔː, uː/ (plus diphthongs) |
| Vowels Shared With English | /a/ /i/ /o/ /u/ /ɛ/ /ʊ/ /e/ /I/ /ɔ/ |
| English Vowels Not Shared with Maltese | /ɚ/ (r‑colored schwa), /ʌ/, /ə/, /æ/ |
Notes on Maltese Phonology
- Maltese includes unique consonants like the glottal stop /ʔ/ and pharyngeal fricative /ħ/ (absent in English), but shares most other consonants listed.
- Maltese lacks the English fricatives /θ/ and /ð/, and the rhotic approximant /ɹ/, which do not have Maltese equivalents.
- On vowels, Maltese has a richer system, with central and front distinctions and long vs short contrasts, whereas English includes central vowels like /ə/, /ʌ/ and the r‑colored vowel /ɚ/ that Maltese lacks.
The Use of Phonotactic Constraints in Maltese Speakers
Phonotactic constraints are the internal rules that determine permissible syllable shapes and sound sequences in a language. Speakers of Maltese may apply these rules when using English, leading to characteristic simplifications or adaptations of English words that violate Maltese phonotactics.
Common Phonotactic Constraints in Maltese
- Onset Cluster Limitations
- Maltese allows up to three consonants in the syllable onset and up to two in the coda, conforming to the sonority sequencing principle (langsci-press.org).
- English clusters that exceed these limits (e.g. /str-/, /spl-/) may be simplified or broken up by inserting vowels.
- No Word‑Initial Geminates
- Initial geminated consonants are disallowed in Maltese. A prosthetic vowel, usually /ɪ/, is inserted when words begin with a double consonant (e.g. Italian or English loanwords) to break the cluster (Nature).
- Example: /sk-/ → [ɪs‑] onset instead of /sk‑/.
- Complementary Quantity in Monosyllables
- Short vowels in monosyllables must be followed by either a geminate consonant or a consonant cluster, but not both. Long vowels must be followed by a single consonant, never by a geminate (langsci-press.org).
- A shape like V or V does not occur.
- Epenthesis to Avoid Unlicensed Czech‑style Clusters
- Consonant sequences not permitted in Maltese (e.g. str-, spl-, nkt-) may be resolved by inserting vowels to satisfy syllable templates and maintain sonority principles.
- Compensatory Vocalic Lengthening and Historic Consonants
- Historic consonants għ and h may lengthen adjacent vowels, leading to lengthened vowels rather than consonants being retained; this can affect how loanwords are adapted (langsci-press.org, Wikipedia, Wikipedia).
- Absence of Certain Clusters or Sequences
- Maltese avoids consonant clusters that would violate the Obligatory Contour Principle (e.g. adjacent homorganic coronals), and employs vowel prosthesis to prevent such violations (Nature).
Implications for English Learning by Maltese Speakers
- English words beginning with consonant clusters (e.g. “street”, “school”) may be preceded by an epenthetic vowel in Maltese-accented speech (e.g. “istreet”, “iskool”).
- Medial or final clusters may be simplified or broken up, especially if clusters violate Maltese sonority sequencing.
- Word‑initial double consonants are typically avoided through epenthesis.
- English vowel‑length contrasts may be neutralized due to compensatory lengthening patterns adopted in Maltese.
Language Specific Differences Between English and Maltese
Maltese and English share subject–verb–object (SVO) order in basic sentences, but Maltese allows more flexible word order when object pronouns are attached to the verb. Adjectives in Maltese follow the noun and agree in gender and number, unlike English adjectives which precede the noun. There are no indefinite articles in Maltese—only a definite article is used (the equivalent of “the”)—and plurals are formed via both suffixation and internal (broken) patterns. Maltese also marks tense through internal vowel changes and suffixes, rather than relying on auxiliary verbs or regular / irregular past tense forms like English.
| Language Features | Maltese | English |
|---|---|---|
| Sentence Word Order | SVO basic, but word order can be free when clitic pronouns attach to the verb | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Adjectives/Noun Modifiers | Adjectives follow the noun and agree in gender/number | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Possessives | Possession marked by suffixes on possessed noun or preposition ta’ plus pronominal suffix | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Possessive Pronouns | Suffixes on noun (e.g. -i, -u, -ha) or standalone (tiegħi, tiegħu) | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Verb inflection | Tense/aspect expressed via root internal vowel change and suffixes (Semitic patterns) | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Pronouns | Rich set including enclitic pronouns; clitic forms attach to verbs or prepositions | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Pronoun Gender | Pronouns distinguish masculine/feminine; third‑person singular enclitics reflect gender | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Subjects of Sentences | Can drop explicit object when clitic pronoun is present; subject still generally expressed | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Regular Past Tense | Past marked via Semitic pattern and suffix; no separate regular “-ed” form | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Irregular Past Tense | Irregularity handled via internal vowel shifts, not by memorized forms like English | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Negatives | Negative formed with ma … x wrapping the verb (e.g. ma nifhimx) | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Double Negatives | Common and grammatical in Maltese negative constructions | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Question formation | Uses question words and clitic positions; inversion less rigid; focus shift possible with clitic movement | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Definite Articles | Only definite articles, prefixed to noun (il-, l-, ir-, is-) agreeing with noun initial consonant | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Indefinite Articles | None | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Prepositions | Prepositions often combine with the definite article; e.g. fuq-u (“on him”) | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Present Progressive Verb Form | No separate “–ing” progressive; aspect more often implied via context or suffix form | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Modal Verbs | No direct equivalents; modality expressed via particles or context | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Copula/”To Be” Verbs | Exist but often omitted; verbs of state integrated in verb morphology | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Auxiliary Verbs | Rare; tense/aspect built into main verb, auxiliaries like għandek for obligation | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Passive Voice | Passive formed via cliticization and verb morphology, less common than in English | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Direct Object Pronouns | Enclitic pronouns attach to verb or preposition; agree in gender/number/person | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Conjunctions | Uses conjunctions like “u” (and), “li” (that) and “minn” (than/from) with Semitic pattern influence | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
| Plurals | Mix of Semitic broken plurals and Romance-style suffixes (‑i, ‑ijiet, ‑iet) and dual forms | Taken from Turkish English comparison |
Additional Afroasiatic Languages
This is just one of the Afroasiatic languages we explore in the World Language Library. Click below to learn more about Semitic languages such as Arabic and Neo-Aramaic, as well as Maltese.
| Arabic | Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (Semitic subbranch) | Maltese (Semitic roots) |
| Amharic | Maay Maay | Oromo |
| Acholi, a Nilo-Saharan language | Swahili |
Sources:
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Avram, Andrei. “Maltese has a much richer vowel phoneme inventory…” Language Science Press PDF, accessed July 2025.
“Basic Maltese Grammar.” Scribd, uploaded by pbury. Descriptions of adjective agreement, dual/plural formation. Accessed July 2025. scribd.com
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“Everything You Need To Know About The Maltese Language.” Babbel Magazine, 7 Sept. 2023.
Fabri, Ray. Grammatical Agreement in Maltese. Journal of Maltese Studies, vol. 30. Discussion on clitic pronouns, agreement, word order flexibility.
Falzon, Grazio. Basic Maltese Grammar. [PDF], sections on plural, adjective agreement, verbs, negation. Accessed July 2025. academia.edu
Galea, Luke, and Adam Ussishkin. Onset Clusters, Syllable Structure and Syllabification in Maltese. In The Languages of Malta, edited by Patrizia Paggio and Albert Gatt, Language Science Press, 2018, pp. 55–79. (Nature, langsci-press.org)
“Maltese Americans.” Wikipedia, 24 May 2025.
“Maltese Language.” Wikipedia, 2025.
“Maltese Language.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, accessed July 2025.
“Maltese Language – Worldmapper.” Worldmapper, 3 Mar. 2020.
“Maltese Language | Semitic, Indo-European, Phonology.” Britannica, 20 July 1998.
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Contributors:
A special thanks to Maria Terrazas with Our Lady of the Lake University for data compilation and research that went into this article!
